られる (1)

1.There are two types of passive sentences in Japanese. One can be called "direct passive" and the other, "indirect passive". The direct passive is similar to the English passive. (Key Sentence (A), Examples (a) and (b)) That is, for every passive sentence, there is a corresponding active sentence. For example, the active version of Key Senence(A) is (1).

(1)
• 花子は一郎をだました。
• Hanako deceived Ichiro.

As seen in Key Sentence (A), in direct passive sentences, the direct object in active sentences is presented as the subject; the subject in active sentences is presented as the agent and marked by に. (⇨ に3) Note that verbs in direct passive sentences are always transitive.

2. When the speaker uses a direct passive sentence, he is making a statement from the viewpoint of the receiver of the action. The agent is frequently omitted when he/it is not important and/or unknown, as in Examples (a) and (b).

3. The indirect object in active sentences can also be the subject in direct passive sentences. Examples:

(2)
• a. Active sentence
• ジョンは先生に質問をした。
• John asked his teacher a question.
• b. Direct passive sentence
• 先生はジョンに質問をされた。
• The teacher was asked a question by John.

The agent in direct passive sentences can also be marked by other particles, such as によって and から.

(3) によって
• a. この絵はピカソによってか描かれた。
• This picture was painted by Picasso.
• b. 電話はベルによって発明された。
• The telephone was invented by Bell.

によって, meaning 'depending on; owing to; by means of', is usually used in written form or formal speech when X in Xによって is a sort of medium through which or whom something is done. When によって is used, Xによって is usually under strong focus. Therefore, the following sentences are unacceptable under normal circumstances.

(4)
• a. *私は花子によってぶ打たれた。
• I was hit by Hanako.
• *川本さんはいつも仕事によって追われている。
• Mr. Kawamoto's work always keeps him busy.

から 'from' can be used in place of に when the agent is a sort of source, that is, when there is something coming from the agent.

(5) から
• a. 私は学生から日本の大学のことを聞かれた。
• I was asked by the students about Japanese universities.
• b. 木田さんはみんなから尊敬されている。
• Mr. Kida is respected by everybody.

The following sentences are unacceptable because the agents cannot be considered sources.

(6)
• a. *その時計は泥棒から盗まれました。
• That watch was stolen by a thief.
• b. *この写真は私の父から撮られたものです。
• This picture is the one taken by my father

5. The other type of passive, the indirect passive, does not exist in English. The indirect passive is different from the direct passive and the English passive in the following ways:

(A) The verb can be intransitive.  (Key Sentence (B), Example (c))

(B) The direct object can remain as the direct object.  (Key Sentence (C), Example (d))

The indirect passive describes an event (X) involving an action by someone or something (Y) which affects another person (Z). As in direct passive sentences, the subject (Z) has no control over the event. Consider the following pair of sentences. (7a), a non-passive sentence, states simply that Taro drank Jiro's beer. (7b), an indirect passive sentence, however, expresses the idea that Jiro was affected by Taro's drinking beer. It implies that Jiro was annoyed in some way by Taro's action, perhaps because the beer Taro drank belonged to Jiro.

(7)
• a.太郞は次郎のビールを飲んだ。
• Taro drank Jiro's beer.
• b.次郞は太郎にビールを飲まれた。
• Jiro was annoyed by Taro's drinking beer.

6. In the indirect passive construction, Z is usually presented as the topic, marked by は, and Y as the agent, marked by に, as seen in Key Sentence (B) and Key Sentence (C).

7. Since in many situations X negatively affects Z, this construction is also referred to as "adversity passive" or "suffering passive". (Key Sentence (B), Key Sentence (C), Examples (c) and (d)) However, whether X affects Z negatively or positively depends on the situation. Z is not always a "victim", seen in (8) where Z is affected positively.

(8)
• 高山さんは美人に横に座られてニコニコしている。
• Literally: Mr. Takayama, having a pretty woman sit beside him, is smiling happily. (= A pretty woman sat beside Mr. Takayama and he is happy.))

8. In indirect passive sentences, the agent must be marked by に. If a passive sentence contains an Noun Phrase に, as well as an agent marked by に, the agent must precede the Noun Phrase に. Example:

(9)
• a. 私はトムにメアリーに電話された。
• Tom called Mary (and I was unhappy).
• b. *私はメアリーにトムに電話された。
• Tom called Mary (and I was unhappy).

9. Passive verbs are also used as honorific expressions, as in Key Sentence (D) and Example (e), though the degree of politeness is lower than that of the "おVerbますになる" form and special honorific verbs. (⇨ お~になる) Politeness, in this case, is conveyed through the indirectness of the passive construction.

10. Passive verbs are all Group 2 verbs. The basic conjugations are as follows:

(10)

【Related Expression】

The potential form of Group 2 verbs is the same form as the passive form.(⇨ られる2) Potential, passive or honorific structures are identified through syntax and context. Examples:

[1]

[Potential]
• 先生は刺身が食べられる。
• My teacher can eat sashimi.

[2]

先生は刺身を食べられた。
• [Honorific] My teacher ate sashimi.
• [Potential] My teacher could eat sashimi.
• [Indirect passive] Someone ate sashimi and my teacher was unhappy.

[3]

[Indirect passive]
• 先生は学生に刺身を食べられた。
• The teacher had (his) sashimi eaten by his students.

As seen in [1], if the direct object is marked by が, 食べられる can only be interpreted as potential; if there is an agent marked by に, however, 食べられる expresses indirect passive, as seen in [3]. If there is no agent marked by に and the direct object is marked by を, 食べられる is ambiguous; it can be either honorific, potential or indirect passive, as seen in [2].